Mirror Neurons and Motor Memory Formation Essay -- Biology

WHAT ARE MIRROR NEURONS? Mirror neurons have been hailed by scientists as the most significant finding in neurology in the past decade, the key to understanding the secrets of human interaction and learning, and as significant to psychology as DNA is to biology. Mirror neurons are a newly-discovered structure of the brain responsible for the firing of neurons during both physical movement and the observation of physical movement. It is these firings during observation of movements that has scientists excited about their relation to learning and interaction. While mirror neurons have been found in both primates and humans, their role in terms of learning and perfecting motor skills is still unclear. The discovery of mirror neurons: The discovery of mirror neurons in macaque monkey was actually an accident during research on the monkeys. It was found that when placing peanuts in front of a monkey, a neuron would be fired whenever the monkey would reach for a peanut. This was to be expected: neurons are fired as signals to muscles to perform the movement. However, when a researcher grabbed a peanut while the monkey was simply watching, the neurons were still fired, implying a neurological link between physical movement and observation. While it is believed that mirror neurons are imperative for monkeys to understand what other monkeys are doing, the believed function of mirror neurons in human brains is much more extensive. Discovery of possible neuron mirror systems in the human brain have been found by the fact that areas in motor cortex become excited when a person observes another do an action. This same motor cortex is responsible for our physical movements, thus offering support that we too contain mirror... ...eversed and reinforced results. The ObsPract Towards data shows that repeated viewing of a movement reinforcing one's baseline does, in fact, translate to a reinforcement of the physical baseline. However, the ObsPract Opposite results show that viewing, and not merely practicing (as in PhysPract) a movement that contradicts one's baseline can affect that baseline. After viewing the contradictory film, the ObsPract Opposite subject's baseline was clearly altered, as now half of his involuntary movements followed the film rather than his previously-established baseline. Though not a complete change of the neural pathway, this clearly demonstrates that viewing an activity can affect one's brain, as was hypothesized. Sources Stefan, Katja et al. October 2005. Formation of a Motor Memory by Action Observation. The Journal of Neuroscience: Vol. 25, issue 41.

Humes Wide Construal of the Virtues Essay -- Hume Virtues Virtue Phil

Hume's Wide Construal of the Virtues ABSTRACT: The term "virtue" has traditionally been used to designate morally good character traits such as benevolence, charity, honesty, wisdom, and honor. Although ethicists do not commonly offer a definitive list of virtues, the number of virtues discussed is often short and their moral significance is clear. Hume's analysis of the virtues departs from this tradition both in terms of the quantity of virtues discussed and their obvious moral significance. A conservative estimate of the various virtues Hume refers to in his moral writings would put the number at around seventy, with the more untraditional ones including wit, good manners, and dialog. Unsurprisingly, Hume's critics have attacked him for making nonsense of the concept of virtue by construing it so widely. Hume was aware that his broad understanding of virtue was controversial and he offered several defenses for it. After presenting the neglected attacks of his contemporaries along with Hume's response, I argue that a problem remains: by failing to distinguish between degrees of virtue, Hume also fails to distinguish between degrees of vice. But, some vices (e.g., malevolence) clearly deserve punishment whereas other alleged vices (e.g., uncleanliness) clearly do not. Thus, for adequate retribution, a distinction is needed between important and less important virtues and vices. I conclude that Hume could have used his own account of instinctive vengeance as a natural indicator for distinguishing between important and unimportant vices. The term "virtue" has traditionally been used to designate morally good character traits such as benevolence, charity, honesty, wisdom, and honor. Although ethicists, past and present, do ... ...f John Leland's A view of the principal deistical writers..., in the Monthly Review, 1757, Vol. 14, pp. 465-477, and in the Critical Review, 1756, Vol. 1, pp. 193-208. (12) James Beattie, Essay on the nature and immutability of truth in opposition to sophistry and scepticism. 1770, Edinburgh, A. Kincaid and J. Bell, pp. 421-448. (13) "Character of the Works of David Hume Esq," in The Weekly Magazine or Edinburgh Amusement, 1773, Vol. 22, pp. 233-234. (14) "Tobias Simple," "Strictures on the account of the life and writings of David Hume," in Weekly Magazine, or Edinburgh Review, 1777, Vol. 38, pp. 289-292. (15) C. L. Stevenson, Ethics and Language, (New Haven: 1944), pp. 34-35. (16) Pall S. Ardal, Passion and Value, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1966), pp. 160-161. (17) J. L. Mackie, Hume's Moral Theory, (London: Routledge, 1980), p. 129.

The Alien and Sedition Acts 1798

The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 challenged the Bill of Rights, but ultimately led to a new American definition of freedom of speech and the press. When John Adams succeeded George Washington as president in 1797, the Federalist Party had controlled Congress and the rest of the national government from the beginning of the new nation. Adams and the other Federalists believed that their political party was the government. The Federalists believed that once the people had elected their political leaders, no one should publicly criticize them.The Federalist Party, led by Alexander Hamilton, aimed to create a stable and secure country, safe for business and wealthy men of property. The opposition Democratic-Republican Party was bitterly opposed to the Federalists. Led by Thomas Jefferson, it tended to represent poor farmers, craftsmen, and recent immigrants. (The party was commonly referred as the Republicans or Jeffersonians. It was the forerunner of today's Democratic Party. ) In fo reign affairs, the Federalists detested the French Revolution of 1789 because it led to mob rule and confiscation of property.The Republicans supported the French Revolution for its democratic ideals. In 1794, President Washington negotiated a treaty with England to settle outstanding differences between the two countries. The resulting improvement in American-English relations angered the revolutionary French leaders, who were enemies of the English. In the election of 1796, Federalist John Adams won the most electoral votes to become president. Republican Thomas Jefferson came in second, which made him vice-president. (The 12th Amendment later changed this election method, requiring separate electoral ballots for president and vice-president.) Shortly after becoming president, Adams sent diplomats to France to smooth over the bad feelings. But three French representatives—dubbed X, Y, and Z—met secretly with the U. S. diplomats and demanded $10 million in bribes to t he French government to begin negotiations. When the Americans refused, Mr. X threatened the United States with the â€Å"power and violence of France. † News of the â€Å"XYZ Affair† enraged most Americans. Many Federalists immediately called for war against France. President Adams, however, only proposed war preparations and a land tax to pay for them.On the defensive, Republicans spoke out against the â€Å"war fever. † Neither the United States nor France ever declared war. But the Federalists increasingly accused Jefferson and the Republicans of being a traitorous â€Å"French Party. † A leading Federalist newspaper proclaimed to the nation, â€Å"He that is not for us, is against us. † ? The Alien Acts Rumors of a French invasion and enemy spies frightened many Americans. President Adams warned that foreign influence within the United States was dangerous and must be â€Å"exterminated.† The Federalist majority in Congress quickly pass ed four laws in 1798 to make the United States more secure from alien (foreign) spies and domestic traitors. Most of these laws, however, were also intended to weaken Jefferson's Democratic-Republican Party. The first law, the Naturalization Act, extended the time immigrants had to live in the United States to become citizens from five to 14 years. Since most immigrants favored the Republicans, delaying their citizenship would slow the growth of Jefferson's party.The Alien Enemies Act provided that once war had been declared, all male citizens of an enemy nation could be arrested, detained, and deported. If war had broken out, this act could have expelled many of the estimated 25,000 French citizens then living in the United States. But the country did not go to war, and the law was never used. The Alien Friends Act authorized the president to deport any non-citizen suspected of plotting against the government during either wartime or peacetime. This law could have resulted in the m ass expulsion of new immigrants.The act was limited to two years, but no alien was ever deported under it. The fourth law was the Sedition Act. Its provisions seemed directly aimed at those who spoke out against the Federalists. ? The Sedition Act In general, sedition means inciting others to resist or rebel against lawful authority. In England, â€Å"seditious libel† prohibited virtually any criticism of the king or his officials. English common law held that any spoken or written words that found fault with the king's government undermined the respect of the people for his authority. The U. S.Sedition Act first outlawed conspiracies â€Å"to oppose any measure or measures of the government. † Going further, the act made it illegal for anyone to express â€Å"any false, scandalous and malicious writing† against Congress or the president. Significantly, the act did not specifically protect the vice-president who, of course, was Jefferson. Additional language pun ished any spoken or published words that had â€Å"bad intent† to â€Å"defame† the government or to cause the â€Å"hatred† of the people toward it. These definitions of sedition were more specific than those found in English common law.Even so, they were still broad enough to punish anyone who criticized the federal government, its laws, or its elected leaders. Unlike English common law, the Sedition Act allowed â€Å"the truth of the matter† to be a defense. The act also left it to the jury to decide if a defendant had â€Å"bad intent. † Penalties for different provisions of the law ranged from six months to five years in prison and a fine of up to $5,000 (more than $100,000 in today's dollars). The Republican minority in Congress argued that sedition laws violated the First Amendment to the U. S.Constitution, which protects freedom of speech and the press. The Federalists countered by defining these freedoms in the narrow English manner. Accor ding to English law, free speech and press only applied before the expression of ideas. The government could not censor or stop someone from expressing ideas. But after the words had been spoken or printed, the government could punish people if they had maliciously defamed the king or his government. The Federalist majority in Congress passed the Sedition Act and President Adams signed it into law on July 14, 1798.It was set to expire on March 3, 1801, the last day of the first and—as it turned out—only presidential term of John Adams. ? The Attack on the Republicans Secretary of State Timothy Pickering was in charge of enforcing the Alien and Sedition Acts. He immediately began to read as many Republican newspapers as he could, looking for evidence of sedition against President Adams and Congress. In October 1798, a Vermont Republican congressman, Matthew Lyon, became the first person to be put on trial under the Sedition Act. Like most Republicans, Lyon opposed going to war against France and objected to the land tax to pay for war preparations.Lyon wrote a letter published in a Republican newspaper, criticizing President Adams for â€Å"a continued grasp for power. † He also read aloud at several public meetings a letter written by poet Joel Barlow who jokingly wondered why Congress had not ordered Adams to a madhouse. A federal grand jury indicted Lyon for intentionally stirring up hatred against President Adams. Unable to find a defense attorney for his trial, Lyon defended himself. The U. S. marshal, a Federalist appointee, assembled a jury from Vermont towns that were Federalist strongholds.Lyon attempted to prove the truth of the words he wrote and spoke, as permitted by the Sedition Act. This meant that the burden of proof was on him. Lyon had to prove the words in question were true rather than the prosecutor having to prove them false. Lyon also argued that he was only expressing his political opinions, which should not be subje ct to the truth test. The jury found Lyon guilty of expressing seditious words with â€Å"bad intent. † The judge, also a Federalist, sentenced him to four months in jail, a $1,000 fine, and court costs. Lyon ran for re-election to Congress from his jail cell and won.Vermont supporters petitioned President Adams to release and pardon him, but Adams refused. When Lyon was released from jail, he was welcomed as a hero in his Vermont hometown. He was cheered along the route he took when he journeyed to Congress. Once Lyon returned to Congress, the Federalists tried to expel him as a convicted criminal, but this effort failed. Thirteen more indictments were brought under the Sedition Act, mostly against editors and publishers of Republican newspapers. While some Republican newspapers were forced to close down, many others were intimidated not to criticize the government.One Republican was convicted of sedition for publishing a pro-Jefferson campaign pamphlet that accused Presiden t Adams of appointing corrupt judges and ambassadors. Two men were found guilty of raising a â€Å"liberty pole† and putting a sign on it that said, â€Å"Downfall to the Tyrants of America. † Another was arrested, but never tried, for circulating a petition to repeal the Alien and Sedition Acts themselves. A drunk was fined $150 for insulting President Adams. In the most bizarre case, the Federalists in the U. S. Senate formed a special committee to investigate a Republican editor, William Duane.Republicans had leaked to him a Federalist proposal to change how presidential electoral votes were counted. Duane had printed the law and written editorials denouncing it. When summoned to the Senate to face charges of writing â€Å"false, scandalous, defamatory, and malicious assertions,† he went into hiding and secretly continued writing for his newspaper. ? Elections of 1800 Although the Federalists hoped the Act would muffle the opposition, many Democratic-Republic ans still â€Å"wrote, printed, uttered and published† their criticisms of the Federalists.Indeed, they strongly criticized the act itself, and used it as one of the largest election issues. It also had enormous implications on the Federalist Party after that point, and ended up being a major contributing factor of its demise. The act expired when the term of President Adams ended in 1801. Ultimately the Acts backfired against the Federalists; while they prepared lists of aliens for deportation, and many aliens fled the country during the debate over the Alien and Sedition Acts, Adams never signed a deportation order.Twenty-five people, primarily prominent newspaper editors but also Congressman Matthew Lyon, were arrested. Of them, eleven were tried (one died while awaiting trial), and ten were convicted of sedition, often in trials before openly partisan Federalist judges. Federalists at all levels, however, were turned out of power, and, over the following years, Congress r epeatedly apologized for, or voted recompense to victims of, the enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Thomas Jefferson, who won the 1800 election, pardoned all of those that were convicted for crimes under the Alien Enemies Act and the Sedition Act.? A New Definition of Free Speech and Press The Alien and Sedition Acts provoked a debate between Republican and Federalist state legislatures over freedom of speech and the press. In a resolution he wrote for the Virginia legislature, James Madison argued that the Sedition Act attacked the â€Å"right of freely examining public characters and measures, and of free communication among the people. † In heavily Federalist Massachusetts, state legislators responded that a sedition law was â€Å"wise and necessary† to defend against secret attacks by foreign or domestic enemies.The Federalists in Congress issued a report accepting the old English common law definition of free speech and press. It argued that the First Ame ndment only stopped the government from censoring beforehand any speeches or writings. The government, argued the Federalists, should be able to protect itself from false and malicious words. Congressman John Nichols, a Republican from Virginia, challenged this Federalist view. He asserted that Americans must have a free flow of information to elect leaders and to judge them once they were in office.Nichols asked why government, which should be critically examined for its policies and decisions, should have the power to punish speakers and the press for informing the voters. In the end, the people settled this debate in 1800 by electing Thomas Jefferson president and a Republican majority to Congress. In his inaugural address, Jefferson confirmed the new definition of free speech and press as the right of Americans â€Å"to think freely and to. ? References- 1. Rocco Donofrio, Kathleen A. Hunter, â€Å"THE NULLIFICATION CRISIS, 1798 AND 1799†, www. nhps.net/consortium/TAHEL2 B/TAH%20Vol2B/LESSONPLANEIGHTEEN. pdf 2. Dr. Tom Ward, â€Å"We The People†, cte. rockhurst. edu/FileUploads/We%20The%20People. pdf 3. Gordon T. Belt, â€Å"The Sedition Act of 1798†, www. firstamendmentcenter. org/PDF/Sedition_Act_cases. pdf 4. Michael E. Parrish, â€Å"American Legal and Constitutional History I: Colonial era to civil War†, www. helsinki. fi/hum/renvall/pam/teaching_old/2006_autumn_legal. pdf 5. U. S. Government, â€Å"The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798† ntranet. dalton. org/hs/History/AmericanHistory/pdf_supplimental/2_09alien_and_sedition_acts. pdf

Motivation and Team Case Study Essay

The motivation theories that can be found in Two Mens and a lot of Trucks are the desire many people have to take the risk of trying to start and develop their own profitable business. The motivation Mary had to start her own business is followed up threw her franchising the company to other individuals with similar motivation. In Mary’s situation her motivation came after her children finished college and she decided to quit her career to pursue the success of the corporation. She then had given the ability to other individuals to fabricate their own motivation of success threw franchising the company. Mary’s approach to creating high-performance teams within the company started with the principles of the company. These principles are simple but vital to the company. It began with the uniforms and is followed by the attitude to treat customers how you would want your grandmother to be treated. The motivational theories in Siemens’s New Boss are proof of the need for evolving styles of leadership within corporations. Kleinfeld had new approaches to running business. He had foresight and the motivation to request things from employees (such as working weekends) to maintain the profitability of that portion of a much larger corporation. His motivation for success was shown in his dedication to raise a family while working and going to school full time. His approach to creating high-performance teams was in experience of many different areas of the corporation and his ability to be comfortable in any international situation. Kleinfeld had a canny ability to tell stories. Another large part of his success in creating high performance teams was his personal investment in One Siemens. He personally invested in a program thus showing his confidence in the program. This increases the others to put forth the extra effort when they see the boss taking such a personal financial interest.

Linguistic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Linguistic - Assignment Example In most cases, nouns and pronouns perform the grammatical functions of subject. Because of this, nouns and pronouns should appear at the beginning of a sentence (Lyons, 75). Again, the same rules apply to the use of adjectives, since adjectives or adjectival phrases may also perform the grammatical function of a subject. Because of this, it is expedient to have a preposition or a prepositional phrase coming after the adjectival phrase functioning as the subject. It is for this reason that the sentence below may be correct. The converse of the foregoing is also true that in most cases, content words do not only serve as the subject, but also as the object. Since the object appears at the ultimate position of an active sentence, it is sound that a sentence is completed with a noun, a pronoun or an adjective. For this reason, it may be grammatically correct to say: In a different wavelength, Winston Churchill’s sentence: This is something up with which I will not put is wrong because it splits the to-infinitive. Prepositions are always combined with verbs to form the to-infinitive. Therefore, splitting the to-infinitive may make understanding the sentence difficult because it ignores the short-dependency that the to-infinitive put-up should

Research-based paper on the Problem Solving Process (PSP) for a Term

Research-based on the Problem Solving Process (PSP) for a selected organization - Term Paper Example workers’ strikes and go slows, a high rate of workers’ turnover, lateness and absenteeism among workers, as well as, general theft and misbehavior of workers while at the premises of the organization (Avery, Auvine, Streibel, & Weiss, 1981). This research wants to focus on the best steps that the management can take in resolving a problem within the organization as fast as possible. The longer a problem runs within a company, the more risky and the less profitable the organization becomes due to increases inefficiencies, low productivity, as well as, low morale of workers, which might be the main cause of their underperformance. The research will evaluate the five main steps involved in the problem solving process, as well as, analyze its significance in the management and resolution of conflicts within an organization. This paper will enable an organization to define a certain criteria or standard of conflict resolution within the organization, and as such, empower the leadership of the company to take the forefront in effectively directing others in the research and resolution of issues. An organization in the modern world economy cannot go without a problem or a conflict that may threaten its performance or image in the market. As such, it is imperative for the organization to have an appropriate plan that will enable it maneuver through such a crisis without suffering any significant overhead complications. For example, the Airtel Corporation, a global telecommunications company with its base in India, once had workers strife. This became a global phenomenon whereby nearly 80% of the company’s dedicated workers at the home country went on an industrial action. The workers’ industrial action was to demand for a pay rise, as well as, demand for other benefits and allowances. Furthermore, these employees were not patient enough to let the organization resolve the issues and as such meet their grievances as some of them quit the organization for other

The Importance of Africa as a Civilization and People Essay

The Importance of Africa as a Civilization and People - Essay Example The essay "The Importance of Africa as a Civilization and People" focuses on the topic of African culture while throwing more light on the influences of other religions and culture on this ancient land. Very few are aware that the forerunner of the Homo sapiens that inhibit planet earth was believed to have lived here. One of the first known clues to this question of where man originated came from fossils found in the Afar depression in Ethiopia in the early 1970's. More importantly, the continent has been inundated with many alien cultures starting from the Muslim influence to the colonization in the latter part of the nineteenth century. But in spite of this swarm of cultures, the continent has been able to maintain its ancient individuality. There may be many reasons for this situation. It could be that the land is inhospitable in many places. The climate may be too harsh for alien cultures with tropical rain forests to deserts that are found here in abundance. The culture or aggr essiveness of some of the tribes found in the land may have prevented the dilution of such cultures. It could also be that the African way of thinking that has been a subject of study by many historians and anthropologists may have had an influence in keeping the ancient ways of life, vibrant in some places and diluted in others. In all probability, it could have been a mix of all the above factors that have been instrumental in helping the people of that continent to maintain their individuality. But what this paper attempts to prove is that the so called African system of thought has to a large extent been responsible for the preservation of culture and civilization even if it is in a diluted form. Hence it is proposed that one of the reasons for the retention of African civilization by way of culture, beliefs, and practices is rooted in the ancient African system of thought that is still alive today. Essay Summary Prehistoric Africa: â€Å"Of all the earth’s continents, Africa provides the longest, deepest record of the human past. Several million years ago in Africa, a group of primates diverged from the rest of the apes and set forth on a distinctive evolutionary pathway involving bipedal or upright walking.† (Matrin and O’Meara 1995). The land is often referred to the cradle of humanity. Evolution of civilization was slow until the practice of herding and agriculture began to take root about 8,000 years ago. Distinct ways of life that can be described as proper civilizations began to evolve rapidly after that. Egyptian influence in Africa: Even though this advanced ancient civilization was situated in the continent of Africa, many scholars believed that African and Egyptian cultures were distinct from each other. It was thought that Egypt only used the rest of Africa as a source of slaves and other raw materials. But this erroneous line of thinking was seen by later historians and anthropologists only as a way to maintain European supremacy in the continent. â€Å"In reaction, African and African American scholars, mostly in the latter twentieth century, adopted an opposite paradigm: that ancient Egypt was not only an African civilization, populated by "black" Africans, but also a civilization that imparted its culture to the rest of Africa as well as Europe.† (O’Connor and Reid 2003). Muslim influence: One of the biggest influences on African civilization was that of Islam. It is estimated that one out of every three Africans believes in this faith. The faith first spread into many parts of this continent during the second half of the 7th century. But the influence and faith is still strong in the continent even today. Colonialism and post-colonialism: European colonists had established a